Pb3O4
red lead · minium, lead tetroxide
Red lead is a thermodynamically stable, semiconducting lead oxide widely recognized for its historical use as a pigment and its ongoing role in industrial anti-corrosive applications.
About red lead
Red lead is a vibrant, naturally occurring oxide that maintains a thermodynamically stable position on the convex hull. As a semiconducting material, it has served as a critical inorganic compound throughout human history due to its distinct chemical properties and oxidation states. Its structural complexity is highlighted by the numerous reported atomic arrangements found across major materials databases. The compound remains a focal point for researchers investigating mixed-valence metal oxides and their electronic behaviors. Its utility spans from traditional artistic applications to heavy-duty industrial protective coatings, where its ability to inhibit corrosion is highly valued. Beyond its protective roles, it is a key component in the production of specialized glass and ceramic materials, demonstrating its versatility in modern material science.
Key Properties
Cross-validated computational properties for red lead, aggregated across 3 databases.
Band GapEnergy needed to move an electron from the valence band to the conduction band. Lower or zero values tend to behave more metallic; larger gaps are more insulating or semiconducting.
Energy Above HullThermodynamic distance from the most stable set of competing phases. 0 eV/atom is on the convex hull; small positive values may still be experimentally accessible.
StabilityA plain-language summary of the best reported energy-above-hull result. It reflects whether the lowest-energy structure is on, near, or far from the stability hull.
StructuresCount of reported calculated crystal structures for this formula, including alternate polymorphs, source databases, and observed space groups.
Cross-Source DFT Agreement
How well independent DFT databases agree on the thermodynamics of Pb3O4. Tight agreement means computed properties can be trusted without re-running calculations.
Agreement ScoreA normalized confidence score summarizing how closely independent DFT databases agree. Higher scores mean tighter cross-source agreement.
Hull SpreadDifference between the highest and lowest energy-above-hull values reported by comparable sources. Smaller spread means less thermodynamic disagreement.
Sources ComparedNumber and names of computational sources with comparable entries for this formula.
Space Group ConsensusWhether independent sources predict the same crystal symmetry for the lowest-energy structure.
Reported Structures
Lowest-energy structures reported for Pb3O4, ranked by energy above hull.
| Space GroupSymmetry classification of the crystal arrangement. The number is the international space-group index. | Crystal SystemBroad lattice family, such as cubic, tetragonal, monoclinic, or triclinic, derived from unit-cell symmetry. | Band Gap (eV)Electronic gap calculated for this specific reported structure, measured in electronvolts. | E above hull (eV/atom)Thermodynamic distance from the convex hull for this structure, normalized per atom. Lower is generally more stable. | E/atom (eV)Computed total energy normalized per atom. Use energy above hull, not this value alone, when comparing stability. | Density (g/cm³)Mass per relaxed crystal volume, reported in grams per cubic centimeter. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| — | — | 1.29 | 0.0000 | -1.285 | — |
| P42/mbc (No. 135) | tetragonal | 1.14 | 0.0000 | -5.866 | 8.66 |
| Pbam (No. 55) | orthorhombic | 1.16 | 0.0002 | -5.865 | 8.68 |
| Pbam (No. 55) | orthorhombic | 1.10 | 0.0050 | -1.145 | — |
| Pbam (No. 55) | orthorhombic | 0.99 | 0.0326 | -5.833 | 9.60 |
| — | — | 1.23 | 0.0446 | -1.240 | — |
| — | — | 1.03 | 0.0454 | -1.240 | — |
| — | — | 1.24 | 0.0586 | -1.226 | — |
| — | — | 0.92 | 0.0612 | -1.224 | — |
| — | — | 0.79 | 0.1876 | -1.097 | — |
| Pbam (No. 55) | orthorhombic | — | — | — | 9.31 |
| P42/mbc (No. 135) | tetragonal | — | — | — | 8.95 |
Applications
Where red lead is used.
Frequently Asked Questions
Common questions about red lead, answered from cross-validated data.
What is Pb3O4?
Red lead is a thermodynamically stable, semiconducting lead oxide widely recognized for its historical use as a pigment and its ongoing role in industrial anti-corrosive applications.
What is Pb3O4 used for?
What is the band gap of Pb3O4?
Is Pb3O4 a metal, semiconductor, or insulator?
Is Pb3O4 thermodynamically stable?
What is the crystal structure of Pb3O4?
What is the density of Pb3O4?
How many polymorphs of Pb3O4 are known?
What elements does Pb3O4 contain?
Where does the data for Pb3O4 come from?
How It Compares
As a prominent mixed-valence oxide, Pb3O4 serves as a benchmark for lead-based materials, standing out for its exceptional thermodynamic stability and long-standing industrial relevance compared to other lead oxides that may be less chemically robust or more prone to phase transitions.
Data sources & attribution
- oqmd — Data from the OQMD (oqmd.org). Cite: Saal et al., JOM 65, 1501 (2013); Kirklin et al., npj Comp. Mater. 1, 15010 (2015). (CC-BY-4.0)
- materials_project — Data from the Materials Project (materialsproject.org). Cite: Jain et al., APL Materials 1, 011002 (2013). (CC-BY-4.0)
- jarvis — Data from JARVIS (jarvis.nist.gov), NIST. Cite: Choudhary et al., npj Comp. Mater. 6, 173 (2020). (LicenseRef-US-Gov-PD)
- mpaloe — Data from MP-ALOE. Cite: Kuner et al., npj Comput. Mater. (2025), doi:10.1038/s41524-025-01834-9.
- cod — Data from the Crystallography Open Database (crystallography.net/cod/). Cite: Grazulis et al., J. Appl. Cryst. 42, 726 (2009). (CC0-1.0)
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